On China
Authors: Henry Kissinger, Henry Kissinger
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Overview
On China explores the complex and evolving relationship between the United States and China, spanning over two centuries of history. Intended for policymakers, scholars, and anyone interested in international relations, especially U.S. foreign policy and China’s role in the world, the book offers a unique perspective on how China’s strategic thinking, rooted in its long history and cultural traditions, has shaped its approach to international affairs.
I argue that China’s view of itself as the “Middle Kingdom,” the center of civilization, has profoundly influenced its interactions with other nations. This historical context is essential for understanding China’s behavior in the modern era, from the initial encounters with Western powers to its current rise as a global economic and military power. China’s strategic thought, as I demonstrate, emphasizes the psychological and political dimensions of international relations, prioritizing subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage. This approach contrasts sharply with the more pragmatic and often legalistic approach favored by American policymakers.
The book analyzes key historical events, including the Opium Wars, the opening to China under Nixon, the Korean War, the Sino-Soviet split, the Cultural Revolution, Tiananmen Square, and the rise of Deng Xiaoping. These events illustrate the interplay of Chinese and American strategic thinking, the clash of worldviews, and the challenges of building a constructive relationship between the two countries.
I believe that understanding China’s perspective is crucial for navigating the complexities of the 21st century. As China continues to rise, its relationship with the United States will shape the future of the international order. It is only by engaging with China on the basis of mutual respect and a shared understanding of long-term goals that a stable and prosperous future can be secured. I conclude that “co-evolution,” in which each country pursues its domestic imperatives while seeking to minimize conflict and identify complementary interests, offers the best path forward for managing this critical relationship.
Book Outline
0. Preface
China’s strategic thought, profoundly different from America’s, emphasizes the psychological and political elements over purely military ones, stressing subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage.
Key concept: On China does not simply describe events; it attempts to look at them through the prism of Chinese strategic thinking.
1. The Singularity of China
Chinese civilization’s unique history and enduring sense of cultural centrality have shaped its strategic thinking and approach to international relations.
Key concept: No other country can claim so long a continuous civilization, or such an intimate link to its ancient past and classical principles of strategy and statesmanship.
2. The Kowtow Question and the Opium War
The encounter between China and the West highlighted the clash between two distinct worldviews: the Sinocentric tributary system versus the Western concept of sovereign equality.
Key concept: Different histories and cultures produce occasionally divergent conclusions.
3. From Preeminence to Decline
The 19th century witnessed a series of shocks to China’s traditional self-image, as it faced challenges from Western powers, Russia, and Japan, forcing it to adapt while preserving its core identity.
Key concept: China strove for a new identity, and above all, to reconcile the values that marked its greatness with the technology and commerce on which it would have to base its security.
4. Mao’s Continuous Revolution
Mao Zedong’s leadership was marked by a commitment to continuous revolution, both domestically and internationally, seeking to transform China and its place in the world.
Key concept: Mao’s revolution had no final resting place…
5. Triangular Diplomacy and the Korean War
The Korean War, resulting from the interplay of Chinese, Soviet, and American policies, marked the beginning of a complex triangular relationship.
Key concept: Like many visitors over the centuries, I have come to admire the Chinese people…
6. China Confronts Both Superpowers
Following the Korean War, China adopted a strategy of confronting both superpowers simultaneously, exploiting their mutual anxieties.
Key concept: China thought of itself as playing a special role…
7. A Decade of Crises
The Cultural Revolution, a period of domestic upheaval, profoundly affected China’s relations with the rest of the world.
Key concept: … in each case dialogues have to be opened…
8. The Road to Reconciliation
The path to reconciliation between China and the United States was paved by a combination of necessity, strategic vision, and careful diplomacy on both sides.
Key concept: Necessity may provide the impetus for policy; it does not, however, automatically define the means.
9. Resumption of Relations: First Encounters with Mao and Zhou
My secret trip to Beijing in 1971 and Nixon’s subsequent visit marked the resumption of high-level contact between the two countries after two decades of estrangement.
Key concept: So it’s only the second meeting, and I am saying what I want to you.
10. The Quasi-Alliance: Conversations with Mao
The relationship between China and the United States evolved from a quasi-alliance during the Cold War to a more complex interplay of cooperation and competition.
Key concept: The traditional context…
11. The End of the Mao Era
The end of the Mao era was marked by political and economic challenges, including the succession crisis and the rise of Deng Xiaoping.
Key concept: Mao’s grip on power-and his capacity to manipulate-were both slipping away…
12. The Indestructible Deng
Deng Xiaoping’s leadership transformed China’s domestic policies, emphasizing economic reform and opening up to the outside world.
Key concept: Deng’s was a fitful and improbable road to power.
13. ‘Touching the Tiger’s Buttocks’: The Third Vietnam War
China’s invasion of Vietnam in 1979, though costly, was intended to demonstrate China’s resolve and the limits of Soviet influence.
Key concept: … after all we could still touch the buttocks of the tiger.
14. Reagan and the Advent of Normalcy
The Reagan administration’s relationship with China was marked by efforts to find common ground despite differing views on Taiwan.
Key concept: [M]y views … were similar to those of Mr. Dulles at that time. But the world has changed…
15. Tiananmen
The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and their suppression posed a major challenge to China’s international relations and its domestic reform program.
Key concept: China seemed stable…
16. What Kind of Reform? Deng’s Southern Tour
Deng Xiaoping’s ‘Southern Tour’ in 1992 reaffirmed his commitment to economic reform and opening up.
Key concept: Deng, in early 1992, emerged from retirement for his last great public gesture.
17. A Roller Coaster Ride Toward Another Reconciliation: The Jiang Zemin Era
The Jiang Zemin era saw China’s continued economic growth and its increasing integration into the world economy, alongside ongoing tensions with the United States.
Key concept: China’s adversaries along its northern and southern borders might misconstrue the absence of recognition as an opportunity.
18. The New Millennium
The early 21st century presented both strategic opportunities and challenges for China, as it navigated a world in flux and a changing relationship with the United States.
Key concept: As his period in office moved toward its conclusion, Jiang expressed his recognition of this danger…
19. Epilogue: Does History Repeat Itself? The Crowe Memorandum
The future of U.S.-China relations requires careful management of the relationship, avoiding the pitfalls of a zero-sum mentality and embracing a vision of co-evolution.
Key concept: Strategic trust is treated by many as a contradiction in terms.
Essential Questions
1. How has China’s sense of cultural centrality shaped its view of itself and its role in the world?
China’s unique sense of cultural identity and historical experience have profoundly shaped its strategic outlook. This sense of cultural centrality, rooted in the “Middle Kingdom” concept, where China views itself as the center of civilization, has been a constant throughout Chinese history. This perspective is critical for understanding China’s actions in the modern era, from its initial interactions with Western powers to its contemporary rise. Recognizing this cultural legacy is essential for any nation seeking to engage with China effectively.
2. How does Chinese strategic thinking differ from that of the West?
Chinese strategic thought differs from Western strategic thought in its emphasis on the psychological and political dimensions over purely military ones. Drawing on examples from Sun Tzu’s The Art of War, I highlight the importance of subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage in Chinese strategic thinking. This approach contrasts with the Western focus on decisive battles and total victory. Recognizing this fundamental difference is essential for understanding China’s actions in international affairs, from its approach to negotiation to its conduct in war.
3. What were the key principles of Mao Zedong’s ‘continuous revolution’ and how did they shape China’s domestic and foreign policies?
Mao’s “continuous revolution” concept reflected a belief in permanent upheaval, both domestically and internationally. This approach, aimed at achieving a utopian transformation of society, contrasted with traditional Chinese emphasis on order and harmony. It also had a profound impact on China’s foreign policy, as Mao used ideological pronouncements and nuclear rhetoric to create psychological leverage against more powerful adversaries. While ostensibly based on Marxist ideology, Mao’s approach also drew heavily on Chinese strategic traditions, combining them in new ways that were often difficult for Westerners to understand. His legacy had an enduring impact on Chinese politics and society, shaping the thinking of the next generations.
4. How did Deng Xiaoping’s reforms transform China and its relationship with the world?
Deng’s reforms, though rooted in a rejection of Mao’s Cultural Revolution, were a revolution of their own. Deng’s approach emphasized economic pragmatism and opening up to the outside world - a radical departure from Mao’s focus on ideological purity and self-reliance. Deng recognized that for China to regain its great power status, it needed to embrace economic modernization and engage with the world. His emphasis on “seeking truth from facts” and results over ideological dogma marked a turning point in Chinese history, ushering in an era of unprecedented economic growth and China’s integration into the world economy. Deng’s reforms also laid the groundwork for the challenges and opportunities facing China in the 21st century.
5. How has the relationship between the United States and China evolved over time, and what are the key factors that have shaped this evolution?
The U.S.-China relationship evolved from confrontation to cooperation. The two countries started as adversaries, with differing ideological and geopolitical objectives. Rapprochement began under Nixon. This shift was driven by strategic considerations, especially the shared interest in countering the Soviet Union. The relationship has been marked by periods of both cooperation and tension. The challenge for both sides has been to manage these differences and build a constructive relationship based on mutual respect and understanding of long-term goals. The future of U.S.-China relations will shape the international order in the 21st century and beyond.
1. How has China’s sense of cultural centrality shaped its view of itself and its role in the world?
China’s unique sense of cultural identity and historical experience have profoundly shaped its strategic outlook. This sense of cultural centrality, rooted in the “Middle Kingdom” concept, where China views itself as the center of civilization, has been a constant throughout Chinese history. This perspective is critical for understanding China’s actions in the modern era, from its initial interactions with Western powers to its contemporary rise. Recognizing this cultural legacy is essential for any nation seeking to engage with China effectively.
2. How does Chinese strategic thinking differ from that of the West?
Chinese strategic thought differs from Western strategic thought in its emphasis on the psychological and political dimensions over purely military ones. Drawing on examples from Sun Tzu’s The Art of War, I highlight the importance of subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage in Chinese strategic thinking. This approach contrasts with the Western focus on decisive battles and total victory. Recognizing this fundamental difference is essential for understanding China’s actions in international affairs, from its approach to negotiation to its conduct in war.
3. What were the key principles of Mao Zedong’s ‘continuous revolution’ and how did they shape China’s domestic and foreign policies?
Mao’s “continuous revolution” concept reflected a belief in permanent upheaval, both domestically and internationally. This approach, aimed at achieving a utopian transformation of society, contrasted with traditional Chinese emphasis on order and harmony. It also had a profound impact on China’s foreign policy, as Mao used ideological pronouncements and nuclear rhetoric to create psychological leverage against more powerful adversaries. While ostensibly based on Marxist ideology, Mao’s approach also drew heavily on Chinese strategic traditions, combining them in new ways that were often difficult for Westerners to understand. His legacy had an enduring impact on Chinese politics and society, shaping the thinking of the next generations.
4. How did Deng Xiaoping’s reforms transform China and its relationship with the world?
Deng’s reforms, though rooted in a rejection of Mao’s Cultural Revolution, were a revolution of their own. Deng’s approach emphasized economic pragmatism and opening up to the outside world - a radical departure from Mao’s focus on ideological purity and self-reliance. Deng recognized that for China to regain its great power status, it needed to embrace economic modernization and engage with the world. His emphasis on “seeking truth from facts” and results over ideological dogma marked a turning point in Chinese history, ushering in an era of unprecedented economic growth and China’s integration into the world economy. Deng’s reforms also laid the groundwork for the challenges and opportunities facing China in the 21st century.
5. How has the relationship between the United States and China evolved over time, and what are the key factors that have shaped this evolution?
The U.S.-China relationship evolved from confrontation to cooperation. The two countries started as adversaries, with differing ideological and geopolitical objectives. Rapprochement began under Nixon. This shift was driven by strategic considerations, especially the shared interest in countering the Soviet Union. The relationship has been marked by periods of both cooperation and tension. The challenge for both sides has been to manage these differences and build a constructive relationship based on mutual respect and understanding of long-term goals. The future of U.S.-China relations will shape the international order in the 21st century and beyond.
Key Takeaways
1. China’s worldview is deeply rooted in its long history and culture.
This concept is central to understanding China’s behavior in international affairs and its relationship with the United States. China’s unique historical and cultural perspective shapes its interpretation of events, its policy choices, and its negotiating style. It is essential for policymakers and business leaders to understand this context in order to effectively engage with China.
Practical Application:
In AI product design, consider the user’s cultural background and values. Develop products that resonate with their worldview, rather than imposing a Western-centric perspective. For example, a social media platform designed for a Chinese audience should take into account China’s emphasis on harmony and collective identity, rather than simply replicating features from platforms designed for Western users.
2. China’s strategic thinking emphasizes long-term vision and the indirect approach.
This approach, emphasizing subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage, stands in contrast to the Western focus on decisive battles and short-term gains. This difference in perspective has had a profound impact on how China has approached its interactions with other nations, from negotiations to warfare.
Practical Application:
AI systems should be able to take in complex strategic situations and assess their inherent dynamics and directional tendencies, rather than relying solely on existing data points. A system designed to predict geopolitical events should incorporate an understanding of long-term historical trends and cultural factors.
3. Patience and relationship-building are key to effective diplomacy with China.
China’s diplomats are trained to weave together political, military, and psychological elements into their strategic calculations. They value continuity of relationships more than formal agreements and are comfortable with deadlocks. Recognizing this approach allows for more effective negotiation strategies and avoids unnecessary frustration.
Practical Application:
In international negotiations or business dealings with Chinese counterparts, patience and cultural sensitivity are key. Avoid the urge to impose quick solutions or deadlines and allow time for relationships to develop and mutual understanding to emerge.
1. China’s worldview is deeply rooted in its long history and culture.
This concept is central to understanding China’s behavior in international affairs and its relationship with the United States. China’s unique historical and cultural perspective shapes its interpretation of events, its policy choices, and its negotiating style. It is essential for policymakers and business leaders to understand this context in order to effectively engage with China.
Practical Application:
In AI product design, consider the user’s cultural background and values. Develop products that resonate with their worldview, rather than imposing a Western-centric perspective. For example, a social media platform designed for a Chinese audience should take into account China’s emphasis on harmony and collective identity, rather than simply replicating features from platforms designed for Western users.
2. China’s strategic thinking emphasizes long-term vision and the indirect approach.
This approach, emphasizing subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage, stands in contrast to the Western focus on decisive battles and short-term gains. This difference in perspective has had a profound impact on how China has approached its interactions with other nations, from negotiations to warfare.
Practical Application:
AI systems should be able to take in complex strategic situations and assess their inherent dynamics and directional tendencies, rather than relying solely on existing data points. A system designed to predict geopolitical events should incorporate an understanding of long-term historical trends and cultural factors.
3. Patience and relationship-building are key to effective diplomacy with China.
China’s diplomats are trained to weave together political, military, and psychological elements into their strategic calculations. They value continuity of relationships more than formal agreements and are comfortable with deadlocks. Recognizing this approach allows for more effective negotiation strategies and avoids unnecessary frustration.
Practical Application:
In international negotiations or business dealings with Chinese counterparts, patience and cultural sensitivity are key. Avoid the urge to impose quick solutions or deadlines and allow time for relationships to develop and mutual understanding to emerge.
Memorable Quotes
Chapter 1. 37
The bloodiest conflicts occurred as a result of the breakdown of the internal Chinese system—in other words, as an aspect of internal adjustments of a state for which domestic stability and protection against looming foreign invasion are equal concerns.
Chapter 1. 45
In general, Chinese statesmanship exhibits a tendency to view the entire strategic landscape as part of a single whole: good and evil, near and far, strength and weakness, past and future all interrelated.
Chapter 4. 102
Maoist governance thus turned into a version of the Confucian tradition through the looking glass, proclaiming a total break with the past while relying on many of China’s traditional institutions…
Chapter 9. 234
In some sixty years of public life, I have encountered no more compelling figure than Zhou Enlai.
Epilogue. 492
What a culmination if, forty years later, the United States and China could merge their efforts not to shake the world, but to build it.
Chapter 1. 37
The bloodiest conflicts occurred as a result of the breakdown of the internal Chinese system—in other words, as an aspect of internal adjustments of a state for which domestic stability and protection against looming foreign invasion are equal concerns.
Chapter 1. 45
In general, Chinese statesmanship exhibits a tendency to view the entire strategic landscape as part of a single whole: good and evil, near and far, strength and weakness, past and future all interrelated.
Chapter 4. 102
Maoist governance thus turned into a version of the Confucian tradition through the looking glass, proclaiming a total break with the past while relying on many of China’s traditional institutions…
Chapter 9. 234
In some sixty years of public life, I have encountered no more compelling figure than Zhou Enlai.
Epilogue. 492
What a culmination if, forty years later, the United States and China could merge their efforts not to shake the world, but to build it.
Comparative Analysis
On China stands out for its comprehensive historical scope and focus on strategic thinking. Unlike works focusing on specific periods or aspects of the relationship, this book offers a sweeping analysis of the evolution of Chinese-American relations, drawing on a vast historical record and personal conversations with Chinese leaders. While many scholars analyze China’s behavior through the lens of Western political science or international relations theory, I emphasize the importance of understanding China’s unique strategic culture, which is deeply rooted in its history and philosophical traditions. This perspective allows for a more nuanced understanding of China’s motivations and policy choices, offering insights that may not be apparent from a purely Western perspective. I highlight areas of both convergence and divergence between Chinese and American strategic thinking, offering a balanced and insightful perspective on the challenges and opportunities of this crucial relationship. In contrast to some works that emphasize the economic or ideological dimensions of the relationship, I believe that understanding China’s strategic culture is paramount for effectively navigating the complexities of the 21st century.
Reflection
On China provides a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of the U.S.-China relationship. However, it’s important to recognize the book’s limitations and potential biases. The book is heavily based on my personal experiences and interactions with Chinese leaders, which may not always be representative of the broader Chinese perspective. As a participant in the events described, my analysis may be influenced by my own biases and perspectives. It is also important to consider the evolving nature of China’s strategic culture and behavior. China’s rapid economic growth and integration into the world economy have led to shifts in its domestic politics and foreign policy. While the historical context provided in the book remains relevant, it’s essential to analyze China’s current actions and pronouncements through a contemporary lens, taking into account the changes that have occurred since the book’s publication. As always in international affairs, the challenge is to look at how history interacts with contemporary issues. Despite these limitations, On China remains a valuable resource for anyone seeking to understand the complex and dynamic relationship between the United States and China, offering unique insights into China’s strategic thinking and motivations.
Flashcards
How does Chinese strategic thinking differ from that of the West?
The Chinese approach emphasizes the psychological and political elements over purely military ones, stressing subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage. The Western approach, in contrast, tends to focus on military solutions.
What is ‘continuous revolution,’ as envisioned by Mao Zedong?
Mao’s idea of continuous revolution aimed at constant upheaval to purify society and prevent stagnation. It combined elements of Marxist ideology and Chinese traditions.
What is the kowtow, and what was its significance in traditional Chinese diplomacy?
The kowtow is a ritual prostration performed before the Chinese emperor to signify subservience and acknowledge his superiority within the Sinocentric tributary system.
What is “shi” in Chinese strategic thinking?
“Shi” refers to the potential energy or directional tendency inherent in a situation, essential for strategic advantage.
What is the “Mandate of Heaven”?
The “Mandate of Heaven” is the traditional Chinese belief that emperors derive their legitimacy to rule from heaven, conditional on their virtuous conduct.
What were the key principles of Deng Xiaoping’s reforms?
Deng advocated “socialism with Chinese characteristics,” emphasizing economic pragmatism, opening up to the outside world, and decentralized decision-making. He rejected ideological orthodoxy in favor of practical results.
What is the “one China” policy?
The “one China” policy refers to the principle that there is only one China, encompassing both mainland China and Taiwan, under dispute as to which government legitimately represents “China.”
What were the key characteristics of the initial meeting between Mao and Stalin?
The meeting in 1949 between Mao and Stalin was characterized by ideological posturing. It highlighted the growing tension between the two over issues of leadership and control.
How does Chinese strategic thinking differ from that of the West?
The Chinese approach emphasizes the psychological and political elements over purely military ones, stressing subtlety, indirection, and the patient accumulation of relative advantage. The Western approach, in contrast, tends to focus on military solutions.
What is ‘continuous revolution,’ as envisioned by Mao Zedong?
Mao’s idea of continuous revolution aimed at constant upheaval to purify society and prevent stagnation. It combined elements of Marxist ideology and Chinese traditions.
What is the kowtow, and what was its significance in traditional Chinese diplomacy?
The kowtow is a ritual prostration performed before the Chinese emperor to signify subservience and acknowledge his superiority within the Sinocentric tributary system.
What is “shi” in Chinese strategic thinking?
“Shi” refers to the potential energy or directional tendency inherent in a situation, essential for strategic advantage.
What is the “Mandate of Heaven”?
The “Mandate of Heaven” is the traditional Chinese belief that emperors derive their legitimacy to rule from heaven, conditional on their virtuous conduct.
What were the key principles of Deng Xiaoping’s reforms?
Deng advocated “socialism with Chinese characteristics,” emphasizing economic pragmatism, opening up to the outside world, and decentralized decision-making. He rejected ideological orthodoxy in favor of practical results.
What is the “one China” policy?
The “one China” policy refers to the principle that there is only one China, encompassing both mainland China and Taiwan, under dispute as to which government legitimately represents “China.”
What were the key characteristics of the initial meeting between Mao and Stalin?
The meeting in 1949 between Mao and Stalin was characterized by ideological posturing. It highlighted the growing tension between the two over issues of leadership and control.